The Origins of Judaism, Part 3: Miscellaneous

The Origins of Judaism: An Archaeological-Historical Reappraisal by Yonatan Adler
My rating: 5 of 5 stars

Simply a great book. Adler’s look at archaeological and related evidence for when various practices commanded in the Torah of the Pentateuch became widespread is simple, and has more and more data to be researched today. The rest of my overview can be found either in Part 1 of this expanded review, or in Part 2, or at the original review link below.

First, the exact phrasing above? Adler uses “Pentateuch” for the five books “of Moses.” Torah is used for the “teaching,” which often was law or “nomos,” within them, to then ask where it was discussed literarily centuries later, ie, Christian New Testament, Qumran, Josephus, apocrypha, etc. That’s his terminus ad quem. Therefore, he does not use the Mishna; sayings attributed to 1st century CE rabbis by the second century may not hold up.

Then, as noted, he also looks at archaeological digs and related for their evidence.

He looks at several areas of Torah.

The conclusion he has is that based on the “lived experience” of practitioners of what became Judaism, none of these were widespread before the start of the Hellenistic area, and in most cases, it wasn’t until Hasmonean times. In fact, that’s his summary — that the Torah as prescriptive not descriptive was pushed and promulgated as a Hasmonean unity document or constitution of sorts.

Notes below are my observations and stimulations, as well as what I learned. As noted in posting my review link to a couple of biblical criticism subreddits, I am going to do some more in-depth breakouts to some portions of Adler's book in a series of posts, while still providing a link to the whole review with each one.

The third big part I want to break out further?

A laundry list of items Adler puts under "miscellaneous." In some cases, while the book was five-star overall, it would have been nice for him to flesh these out more, even if that was beyond his stated remit.

The first is circumcision. Adler notes that outside the Pentateuch, Philistines are called "uncircumcised." But, no indication is given as to why Israel was, nor is it noted that other West Semites were as well. And, they’re the only people identified as such outside of it. This is one area where I wished he would have discussed what historians or cultural anthropologists have found about circumcision among West Semites.

Second is Sabbaths. Adler notes a 1 Maccabees exemption for self-defense but tale in 2 Maccabees appears to reject this exemption, the Jews killed in the cave because they would not fight. Sabbath restrictions are nonexistent outside of the Pentateuch in the Tanakh as far as any acts being barred on Sabbath, except Nehemiah, who talks about people treading grain and such, and in another verse, promises to bar the gates of Jerusalem on the Sabbath, plus a lesser verse from Jeremiah, Adler notes.

Ezekiel talks about profaning Sabbaths, but no details; ditto 2nd Isaiah. In both cases, this appears about Sabbaths as religious holidays, not specific proscriptions, Adler says. On reading this, I remembered that 2nd Isaiah also talks about things like New Moon festivals, which would seem to further underscore Adler's analysis.

Sabbath work restrictions were an intense matter of deliberation at the turn of the eras. Adler notes documents from Qumran barring bad words and thoughts, too, not just work. And, of course, this was another area of dispute between Jesus and Pharisees (and in Mark, the alleged Herodian fellow travelers of them, too.) Adler that before the 2nd century BCE, there's not even clear evidence of a 7-day week for Jews and that Sabbath was more likely a general religious holiday; see above on Ezekiel and 2nd Isaiah. And, even if it were, clearly it wasn't being generally observed much before Hasmonean times.

The third is Passover and Unleavened Bread. Unleavened Bread festival of some sort is referenced in Joshua. 2 Chronicles 30 talks about Hezekiah having a big Passover blowout and TWO seven-day periods after that. This is NOT in the parallel in 2 Kings, which itself shows that it's almost certainly aspirational rather than real. 2 Kings 23 talks about Josiah’s Passover, with more in 2 Chronicles. This would seem to undercut the splendor of Hezekiah's alleged observance, too. Elephantine writings talk of Passover circa 420 along with Unleavened Bread, but no details on observances.

Next? Yom Kippur. No Tanakh cites outside the Pentateuch, Adler says. He says there is one explicit Josephus reference and a couple of apparent Qumran ones. 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah, by silence, are unaware of it, as both talk about Sukkoth, which comes just after, without reference to Day of Atonement. Ditto Ezekiel. This is not mentioned in New Testament gospels, either, not even in John, which mentions the three great festivals. Hebrews does have an apparent citation in Chapter 9, but it’s a reference to the priestly action of the Pentateuch and not anything communal, not even the Leviticus16:29 or 23:27 actions. Aharon misses a small trick by not noting that.

That means that Yom Kippur as observed today is almost certainly Rabbinic in the “push” for it, and not Hasmonean, and likely was a substitute with the destruction of the Second Temple, to go beyond Adler. This discussion is, per the intro to the "Miscellaneous," probably the biggest area where Adler could have done more, even if it meant expanding his "remit." And, that would have been discussing just what the Mishna, or any Tannanitic comment outside the Mishna, said about this observance. It's clear, per Wiki's discussion of Yom Kippur and its Avodah that this was post-Temple, but do we know more about its emergence and development?

Sukkoth is in Temple Scroll and Jubilees, and may well have been actually practiced in early Hasmonean times. Neh. 8 has the one reference outside the Penteteuch, though its "four species" greatly differ from Leviticus.

Menorah? The Pentateuch-prescribed version has no attesting elsewhere pre-Maccabean. Solomon's Temple is described as having lampstands, but they're not the same, it is clear.

Adler's conclusion, and one with which I agree?

Even if the persecution of Antiochus IV was real, it may well have targeted just the temple cult, per Daniel. The Torah was elevated in Maccabean times as part a of Hasmonean unity program. John Collins and Reinhard Kratz propose this. Hyrcanus coercing Idumeans to support "the whole law" may support this. So may the rise of Jewish sectarianism upon independence. 

Update: Jon D. Levinson thinks Adler pushes some doors too hard, not just on individual instances, but especially on the claim that before Ptolemaic times, the Torah was seen as descriptive more than prescriptive. I would respond that some of his pushback idealized Deuteronomy, assumes a relatively early date for final or semi-final redaction of Leviticus (vis a vis Ezekiel) and other things. He does, interestingly, note that Adler studied pre-PhD at an Orthodox seminary in Israel, and with a clear "is"/"ought" distinction on the Torah, would appear to still be an Orthodox Jew at heart.

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